Max Weber defined �Charisma� as follows::
� �Charisma� soll eine als au�erallt�glich [�] geltende Qualit�t einer Pers�nlichkeit hei�en, um derentwillen sie als mit �bernat�rlichen oder �bermenschlichen oder zumindest spezifisch au�erallt�glichen, nicht jedem anderen zug�nglichen Kr�ften oder Eigenschaften [begabt] oder als gottgesandt oder als vorbildlich und deshalb als �F�hrer� gewertet wird. Wie die betreffende Qualit�t von irgendeinem ethischen, �sthetischen oder sonstigen Standpunkt aus �objektiv� richtig zu bewerten sein w�rde, ist nat�rlich dabei begrifflich v�llig gleichg�ltig: darauf allein, wie sie tats�chlich von charismatisch Beherrschten, den �Anh�ngern�, bewertet wird, kommt es an.�(1)
First, �charisma� was a Pauline term, meaning the
favor of grace which was directly bestowed upon a human being by God. Here,
charisma was regarded as �eine auf das Heil in Christo abzielende, nicht durch
Sakramente institutionell vermittelte, vom Menschen her nicht erzwingbare
Einwirkung des Geistes Gottes auf den Glaubenden.�(2) (the effect of the holy
spirit upon the faithful, which aimed at the salvation in Christo, and which
neither can institutionally be mediated by the sacraments nor be forced by
Man.) It is in this sense that the word is still understand by theologians.
Max Weber�s Charisma-term � which was first employed
in the field of the sociology of religion, and was then used for the typological
clarification of rule and power in general � has to be conceived in a broad
semantic context. First and foremost it aims at the effects of the
charismatic quality, while not freeing itself from its theological origins. It
is for this reason that the term can be made heuristically fruitful for
analyses in the field of the vita religiosa (providing a critical
handling of the term with regard to the developments in the modern
research).(3)
Although the conception of charisma and institution
seem to be incompatible or, at least, seem to meet in a normative field of
tension(4), charisma appears among the most important guarantees for the
development of the vita religiosa or, more precisely, for the formation
of new religious communities as well as for their reformation and renovation.
In spite (or probably rather because) of their tending towards complex
institutionalization, over and over again the vita religiosa
received a fresh impetus through individuals with a firm own will and strong
leading qualities. Such individuals became � by their own practiced way of life
� models of behavior to the community assembled around them. For the most part,
these individuals passed over the existing traditions and tended to impose
norms their personal stamp, thus leading both to innovative arrangements of the
vita religiosa and to fundamental endangering (e.g. in form of heretical
formations).
A more detailed analysis of such charismatic effects
in the vita religiosa of the Middle Ages as well as a comparison between them is still a
desideratum of the research. Still, too little is known about the relevant
frame conditions of charisma as well as of its developments and mechanics.
Charismatic
figures will be in the foreground of our congress. However, it is not thought to present charismatic figures
in their biographical dimension. Rather, charismatic acting persons should be
regarded primarily as examples in order to approach in a more systematic way
the different possibilities of how charisma functions. Thus, our congress is
not that concerned with biographical histories but with a spectrum of normative
forms of interaction which were determined to a considerable degree by individual
moments (in the negative, this has to be considered also with regard to the
�Amtscharismas� (the charisma of office) which can only continue to exist if
there are persons (however being qualified) standing and acting for its
charismatic qualities).
On
this background, some aspects shall be mentioned which will be dealt with in a
greater detail during our congress. The following points do not claim
completeness; partly they are considerably shortened and they are thought as
rather questions but results:
1. The following structure can be
evolved as thesis:
a) main
characteristics of charismatic leadership
- principally,
charismatic leadership means a �revolutionary� break with the tradition, with
the customs, with the institutionalized rules.
- charismatic
leadership is unmethodical.
- charismatic
leadership is �au�erallt�glich� (is non-customary; not routine; outside the
every day life)
b)
relevant basic structures of the vita religiosa
- As such, the vita
religiosa presents a non-customary way of life (alone for the reason that vita
religiosa means living according to the consilia evangelica. In
difference the praecepta of the Gospel, the consilia evangelica
can and is not expected to be followed by all Christians).
- At the same
time vita religiosa means in a
specific, highly methodical, regular way of living.
- Additionally,
the vita religiosa is based on the
customs and traditions, thus winning a reliability which itself grants
legitimacy.
c) Against this structural field of tension between charismatic
leadership and vita religiosa,
the following fundamental questions can be raised:
- In how far can vita
religiosa exist without charisma?
- How much
Charisma requires the vita religiosa, and in how far does the vita religiosa need
charisma?
- How much
charisma is the vita religiosa
able to take? How much can be tolerated?
- For how long
can charisma maintain its duration within the vita religiosa? Or rather: when does the vita religiosa loose its un-methodological character for the benefit of firmly
institutionalized rules (�Verallt�glichung� of the Charismas� in the sense of
Weber)?
2. In order to find answers to these
questions, the following two complexes should be approached by historic-empirical
investigations:
a) �Charisma and norm
-
The norms, which charismatic persons stand for, find
their reasons in a instance which can�t be questioned (the Divine / the
Numinous ) and to which the charismatic has a direct access (e.g. the �It was
revealed to me by the Lord�� of Francis).
-
The charismatic person aims at the separation of his
model of life from the tradition in order to refer in form of a �message� to
the �truth� [e.g. Stephan of Muret�s refusal to accept any traditional rule: non
est alia regula nisi euangelium Christi] This separation can expose
something revolutionary throughout, which by the keepers of the tradition might
even be regarded as heresy, or at least as being �a-social� (e.g. Ivo of
Chartres� symptomatic reproach to certain communities of hermits for living in
privatis locis proprio jure; or the accusations against the
preaching Norbert of Xanten at his earliest time of activity).
-
Therewith, the charismatic is the transcendent
impersonation of the norms he is standing for. [The Credebant quidam
adhaerentes ei fratres, sufficere ad salutem quod ab ore eius audirent, ita ut
neque ordine neque regula indigerent in the vita of Norbert of Xanten] The
norm is bound in his dealings (docere verbo et exemplo, his word, his
exemplarily way of living, his performance, his theatricality [Francis]), or
simply in his presence (incl. his �presented� absence � �Jesus in the desert� �
Brun of Cologne in Calabria)
-
Principally, the charismatic presentation of truth is
transitorily to the same extend as the body of the charismatic person is
transitorily [the �Quia vero breves dies hominis sunt� et tamdiu humana
magisteria vigent quamdiu preceptor vixerit aut presens fuerit in the vita
of Stephan of Obazine].
-
In order to persist, the �truth� the charismatic
person stands for needs evangelists at best. The �word� has to be transformed
into �script� [as for example the Liber de doctrina of Stephan of
Muret].
-
In order to maintain its validity as norm, script
needs institutional forms. By the processes of trans-personalization, these
forms result in charisma of office (Amtscharisma) or in constitutionalism. They
distinguish themselves by regularity and can put a methodical way of life into
effect. Principally, however, this process can start already during the
lifetime of the charismatic person [as it is the case with Norbert of Xanten,
Robert of Arbrissel or, in a completely different way, with Francis]; it can
start against or with the charismatic�s will, thus himself initiating the
�Verallt�glichung� (dissolution) of his own charisma (as it was the case with
Stephan of Obazine).
-
Or charismatic persons (of the �second generation�)
take up the �word� anew and try � against the processes of institutionalization
� to put it down to the truth of the origin (e.g. the Spiritual movement in the
Franciscan Order)
b) Charisma and
the formation of communities
-
Though, according to Weber, the charismatic person is
the first to believe in his own sending, he needs, however, a community ready
to admit the �truth� values in his message and to abandon the traditional
values in favor of a new /renewed concept of life.
-
The charismatic person has (willingly or not) to be
able to create an impulse for needs of a renewed concept of life. This,
however, does not necessarily mean that he intended the formation of a
community right from the beginning.
-
The charismatic person has to exercise power on his
community (i.e. a symbolic capital in the sense of Bourdieu) in so far as he
displays his authority � beyond the daily entanglements � as a powerful and
exclusively valid instance for interpreting the principles of his community.
Always, the charismatic person has to exercise his power in an almost �magical�
way, having the potentials to change the people spontaneously (Sermo ejus
quasi ignis ardens ita audientium mentes accendit et tanto amore inebriat
ut � vite eorum morumque qualitas immutetur; vita of Stepahn of
Obazine, and, e.g., makes the novitiate unnecessarily; cf. the earliest
Franciscans). or which keeps the community in the ban of a blessing never to be
reached by themselves (In cuius [sc. Norberts of Xanten]
absentia fratribus Praemonstrati remanentibus innumeras antiquus hostis molitus
est insidias; vita Norbert�s].
-
On the persistence of the claims of validity (of the
charismatic person) decides its �proving� in every-day-life which is based on
the success of the charismatic message � however this success might be seen
from a neutral point of view. Most important, however, is the maintenance of an
emotional link between the charismatic person and his community. (Sanctissime
pater, quamdiu tecum fuimus pro tuo amore Deus nobis praebuit necessaria, sed
post mortem tuam quomodo uiuere poerimus?; vita of Stephan of Muret).
-
There is also the case of alienation between the charismatic
leader and his community; there are competitions; the charismatic person can or
might want to withdraw from his leading position (not only Francis but also
already earlier on e.g. Bruno v. K�ln, Norbert v. Xanten, Stephan v. Obazine);
or he might want to get back into the time before the formation of his
community (e.g. the repeated setting out for preaching tours by Robert v.
Arbrissel), or he might to seek retreat to a hermit life.
* Translation by Anne M�ller.
(1)� Max Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, T�bingen 51972, S. 140.
(2) Lexikon f�r Theologie und Kirche, 21958, Bd. 2, Sp. 1025.
(3) Um nur einige Untersuchungen zu nennen: Stefan Breuer, Der archaische Staat. Zur Soziologie charismatischer Herrschaft, Berlin 1990; ders., Max Webers Herrschaftssoziologie, Frankfurt a. M./New York 1991; Michael N. Ebertz, Das Charisma des Gekreuzigten. Zur Soziologie der Jesusbewegung, T�bingen 1987 (darin Kap. 1: Elemente des Konzeptes der charismatischen Herrschaft); Winfried Gebhardt, Charisma als Lebensform. Zur Soziologie des alternativen Lebens, Berlin 1994; Andreas Kalyvas, Charismatic politics and the symbolic foundations of power in Max Weber, in: New German critique 85 (2002), S. 67-103; Wolfgang Schluchter, Die Entwicklung des okzidentalen Rationalismus. Eine Analyse von Max Webers Gesellschaftsgeschichte, T�bingen 1979; ders. (Hg.), Max Webers Sicht des okzidentalen Christentums. Interpretation und Kritik, Frankfurt a. M. 1988; G�nter Schmelzer, Religi�se Gruppen und sozialwissenschaftliche Typologie. M�glichkeiten der soziologischen Analyse religi�ser Orden, Berlin 1979; Constans Seyfarth, Alltag und Charisma bei Max Weber, in: Walter M. Sprondel/Richard Grathoff (Hgg.), Alfred Sch�tz und die Idee des Alltags in den Sozialwissenschaften, Stuttgart 1979, S. 155-177; Francesco Tuccari, Carisma e leadership nel pensiero di Max Weber, Milano 1991.
(4) �Es
ist klar, da� dieses pers�nliche Charisma mit den hierokratischen Anspr�chen
einer �Heilsanstalt�, welche den Weg zu Gott ihrerseits zu monopolisieren
beansprucht, [�] im letztlich unvereinbarem Widerspruch steht.�; Max Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, S.
694. Zu diesem Spannungsfeld vgl. auch Peter von
Moos, Krise und Kritik der Institutionalit�t. Die mittelalterliche
Kirche als �Anstalt� und �Himmelreich auf Erden�, in: Gert Melville (Hg.), Institutionalit�t und
Symbolisierung. Verstetigungen kultureller Ordnungsmuster in Vergangenheit und
Gegenwart, K�ln 2001, S. 293-340.